And as the network gets busier, gas prices increase as transaction senders aim to outbid each other. This can make using Ethereum very expensive. Most layer 2 solutions are centered around a server or cluster of servers, each of which may be referred to as a node, validator, operator, sequencer, block producer, or similar term. Depending on the implementation, these layer 2 nodes may be run by the individuals, businesses or entities that use them, or by a 3rd party operator, or by a large group of individuals similar to Mainnet.

Generally speaking, transactions are submitted to these layer 2 nodes instead of being submitted directly to layer 1 Mainnet. For some solutions the layer 2 instance then batches them into groups before anchoring them to layer 1, after which they are secured by layer 1 and cannot be altered.

The details of how this is done vary significantly between different layer 2 technologies and implementations. A specific layer 2 instance may be open and shared by many applications, or may be deployed by one project and dedicated to supporting only their application. Why is layer 2 needed? Increased transactions per second greatly improves user experience, and reduces network congestion on Mainnet Ethereum. Transactions are rolled up into a single transaction to Mainnet Ethereum, reducing gas fees for users making Ethereum more inclusive and accessible for people everywhere.

Any updates to scalability should not be at the expense of decentralization or security — layer 2 builds on top of Ethereum. There are application specific layer 2 networks that bring their own set of efficiencies when working with assets at scale.

More on layer 2. Rollups Rollups perform transaction execution outside layer 1 and then the data is posted to layer 1 where consensus is reached. As transaction data is included in layer 1 blocks, this allows rollups to be secured by native Ethereum security. There are two types of rollups with different security models: Optimistic rollups: assumes transactions are valid by default and only runs computation, via a fraud proof , in the event of a challenge.

More on Optimistic rollups. Zero-knowledge rollups: runs computation off-chain and submits a validity proof to the chain. More on zero-knowledge rollups. State channels State channels utilize multisig contracts to enable participants to transact quickly and freely off-chain, then settle finality with Mainnet. This minimizes network congestion, fees, and delays. The two types of channels are currently state channels and payment channels.

Learn more about state channels. Sidechains A sidechain is an independent EVM-compatible blockchain which runs in parallel to Mainnet. These are compatible with Ethereum via two-way bridges, and run under their own chosen rules of consensus, and block parameters. Learn more about Sidechains. Plasma A plasma chain is a separate blockchain that is anchored to the main Ethereum chain, and uses fraud proofs like optimistic rollups to arbitrate disputes.

Learn more about Plasma. Validium A Validium chain uses validity proofs like zero-knowledge rollups but data is not stored on the main layer 1 Ethereum chain. This can lead to 10k transactions per second per Validium chain and multiple chains can be run in parallel. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, reproduction and adaptation in any medium and for any purpose provided that it is properly attributed.

Abstract Ethereum, the second-largest cryptocurrency after Bitcoin, has attracted wide attention in the last few years and accumulated significant transaction records. However, the underlying Ethereum network structure is still relatively unexplored.

Also, very few attempts have been made to perform link predictability on the Ethereum transactions network. Specifically, we explore the change in wealth distribution and accumulation on Ethereum Featured Transactional Network EFTN and further study its community structure. The link prediction experimental results demonstrate the superiority of outstanding prediction accuracy on Ethereum networks. Moreover, the statistic usages of the Ethereum network are visualized and summarized through the experiments allowing us to formulate conjectures on the current use of this technology and future development.

Keywords: Ethereum, Graph Neural Network, Wealth Distribution, Network Community Structure Introduction Networks are ubiquitous data structures representing complex real-world scenarios that generally involve relationships among objects Hamilton, Blockchain is one of the promising networks that have the potential to reform several conventional businesses. The first generation of blockchain, namely Bitcoin, has demonstrated that the global consensus can be completed without a trusted third party or central authority.

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